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Framework for detecting APTs based on steps analysis and correlation. (2022)
Book Chapter
EKE, H.N., PETROVSKI, A., AHRIZ, H. and AL-KADRI, M.O. 2022. Framework for detecting APTs based on steps analysis and correlation. In Abbaszadeh, M. and Zemouche, A. (eds.) Security and resilience in cyber-physical systems: detection, estimation and control. Cham: Springer [online], chapter 6, pages 119-147. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97166-3_6

An advanced persistent threatAdvanced persistent threat, (APTAPT), is an attack that uses multiple attack behavior to penetrate a system, achieve specifically targeted and highly valuable goals within a system. This type of attack has presented an in... Read More about Framework for detecting APTs based on steps analysis and correlation..

Detection of false command and response injection attacks for cyber physical systems security and resilience. (2020)
Conference Proceeding
EKE, H., PETROVSKI, A. and AHRIZ, H. 2020. Detection of false command and response injection attacks for cyber physical systems security and resilience. In Proceedings of the 13th Security of information and networks international conference 2020 (SIN 2020), 4-7 November 2020, Merkez, Turkey. New York: ACM [online], article number 10, pages 1-8. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1145/3433174.3433615

The operational cyber-physical system (CPS) state, safety and resource availability is impacted by the safety and security measures in place. This paper focused on i) command injection (CI) attack that alters the system behaviour through injection of... Read More about Detection of false command and response injection attacks for cyber physical systems security and resilience..

Handling minority class problem in threats detection based on heterogeneous ensemble learning approach. (2020)
Journal Article
EKE, H., PETROVSKI, A. and AHRIZ, H. 2020. Handling minority class problem in threats detection based on heterogeneous ensemble learning approach. International journal of systems and software security and protection [online], 13(3), pages 13-37. Available from: https://doi.org/10.4018/IJSSSP.2020070102

Multiclass problem, such as detecting multi-steps behaviour of Advanced Persistent Threats (APTs) have been a major global challenge, due to their capability to navigates around defenses and to evade detection for a prolonged period of time. Targeted... Read More about Handling minority class problem in threats detection based on heterogeneous ensemble learning approach..

Predicting permeability based on core analysis. (2020)
Conference Proceeding
KONTOPOULOS, H., AHRIZ, H., ELYAN, E. and ARNOLD, R. 2020. Predicting permeability based on core analysis. In Iliadis, L., Angelov, P.P., Jayne, C. and Pimenidis, E. (eds.) Proceedings of the 21st Engineering applications of neural networks conference 2020 (EANN 2020); proceedings of the EANN 2020, 5-7 June 2020, Halkidiki, Greece. Proceedings of the International Neural Networks Society, vol 2. Cham: Springer [online], pages 143-154. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48791-1_10

Knowledge of permeability, a measure of the ability of rocks to allow fluids to flow through them, is essential for building accurate models of oil and gas reservoirs. Permeability is best measured in the laboratory using special core analysis (SCAL)... Read More about Predicting permeability based on core analysis..

The use of machine learning algorithms for detecting advanced persistent threats. (2019)
Conference Proceeding
EKE, H.N., PETROVSKI, A. and AHRIZ, H. 2019. The use of machine learning algorithms for detecting advanced persistent threats. In Makarevich, O., Babenko, L., Anikeev, M., Elci, A. and Shahriar, H. (eds.). Proceedings of the 12th Security of information and networks international conference 2019 (SIN 2019), 12-15 September 2019, Sochi, Russia. New York: ACM [online], article No. 5. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1145/3357613.3357618

Advanced Persistent Threats (APTs) have been a major challenge in securing both Information Technology (IT) and Operational Technology (OT) systems. Due to their capability to navigates around defenses and to evade detection for a prolonged period of... Read More about The use of machine learning algorithms for detecting advanced persistent threats..

Combining search strategies for distributed constraint satisfaction. (2015)
Thesis
MAGAJI, A.S-M. 2015. Combining search strategies for distributed constraint satisfaction. Robert Gordon University, PhD thesis.

Many real-life problems such as distributed meeting scheduling, mobile frequency allocation and resource allocation can be solved using multi-agent paradigms. Distributed constraint satisfaction problems (DisCSPs) is a framework for describing such p... Read More about Combining search strategies for distributed constraint satisfaction..

Dynamic agent prioritisation with penalties in distributed local search. (2013)
Conference Proceeding
SAMBO-MAGAJI, A., ARANA, I. and AHRIZ, H. 2013. Dynamic agent prioritisation with penalties in distributed local search. In Filipe, J. and Fred, A. (eds.) Proceedings of the 5th International conference on agents and artificial intelligence (ICAART 2013), 15-18 February 2013, Barcelona, Spain. Setúbal: Science and Technology Publications [online], volume 1, pages 276-281. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5220/0004259202760281

Distributed Constraint Satisfaction Problems (DisCSPs) solving techniques solve problems which are distributed over a number of agents.The distribution of the problem is required due to privacy, security or cost issues and, therefore centralised prob... Read More about Dynamic agent prioritisation with penalties in distributed local search..

Plan recommendation for well engineering. (2011)
Conference Proceeding
THOMSON, R., MASSIE, S., CRAW, S., AHRIZ, H. and MILLS, I. 2011. Plan recommendation for well engineering. In Mehrotra, K.G., Mohan, C.K., Oh, J.C., Varshney, P.K. and Ali, M. (eds.) Modern approaches in applied intelligence: proceedings of the 24th International conference on industrial, engineering and other applications of applied intelligent systems (IEA/AIE 2011), 28 June - 1 July 2011, Syracuse, USA. Lecture notes in computer science, 6704. Berlin: Springer [online], part II, pages 436-445. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-21827-9_45

Good project planning provides the basis for successful offshore well drilling projects. In this domain, planning occurs in two phases: an onshore phase develops a project plan; and an offshore phase implements the plan and tracks progress. The Perfo... Read More about Plan recommendation for well engineering..

Multi-HDCS: solving DisCSPs with complex local problems cooperatively. (2010)
Conference Proceeding
LEE, D., ARANA, I., AHRIZ, H. and HUI, K. 2009. Multi-HDCS: solving DisCSPs with complex local problems cooperatively. In Huang, X.J., Ghorbani, A.A., Hacid, M.-S. and Yamaguchi, T. (eds.) Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE/WIC/ACM international conference on intelligent agent technology (IAT 2010), co-located with the 2010 IEEE/WIC/ACM international conference on web intelligence (WI 2010), and the joint conference workshops (WI-IAT Workshops 2010), 31 August - 3 September 2010, Toronto, Canada. Los Alamitos: IEEE Computer Society [online], volume 2, article number 5614767, pages 295-302. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1109/WI-IAT.2010.141

We propose Multi-HDCS, a new hybrid approach for solving Distributed CSPs with complex local problems. In Multi-HDCS, each agent concurrently: (i) runs a centralised systematic search for its complex local problem; (ii) participates in a distributed... Read More about Multi-HDCS: solving DisCSPs with complex local problems cooperatively..

Hybrid algorithms for distributed constraint satisfaction. (2010)
Thesis
LEE, D.A.J. 2010. Hybrid algorithms for distributed constraint satisfaction.. Robert Gordon University, PhD thesis.

A Distributed Constraint Satisfaction Problem (DisCSP) is a CSP which is divided into several inter-related complex local problems, each assigned to a different agent. Thus, each agent has knowledge of the variables and corresponding domains of its l... Read More about Hybrid algorithms for distributed constraint satisfaction..

A hybrid approach to solving coarse-grained DisCSPs. (2009)
Conference Proceeding
LEE, D., ARANA, I., AHRIZ, H. and HUI, K.-Y. 2009. A hybrid approach to solving coarse-grained DisCSPs. In Proceedings of the 8th International conference on autonomous agents and multiagent systems (AAMAS 2009), 10-15 May 2009, Budapest, Hungary. Richland, South Carolina: International Foundation for Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems (IFAAMAS) [online], pages 1235-1236. Available from: http://www.aamas-conference.org/Proceedings/aamas09/pdf/02_Extended_Abstract/C_SP_0555.pdf

A coarse-grained Distributed Constraint Satisfaction Problem (DisCSP) consists of several loosely connected constraint satisfaction subproblems, each assigned to an individual agent. We present Multi-Hyb, a two-phase concurrent hybrid approach for so... Read More about A hybrid approach to solving coarse-grained DisCSPs..

Multi-Hyb: a hybrid algorithm for solving DisCSPs with complex local problems. (2009)
Conference Proceeding
LEE, D., ARANA, I., AHRIZ, H. and HUI, K.-Y. 2009. Multi-Hyb: a hybrid algorithm for solving DisCSPs with complex local problems. In Baeza-Yates, R., Lang, J., Mitra, S., Parsons, S. and Pasi, G. (eds.) Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE/WIC/ACM international conference on intelligent agent technology (IAT 2009), co-located with the 2009 IEEE/WIC/ACM international conference on web intelligence (WI 2009), and the joint conference workshops (WI-IAT Workshops 2009), 15-18 September 2009, Milan, Italy. Los Alamitos: IEEE Computer Society [online], volume 2, article number 5284811, pages 379-382. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1109/WI-IAT.2009.181

A coarse-grained Distributed Constraint Satisfaction Problem (DisCSP) is a constraint problem where several agents, each responsible for solving one part (a complex local problem), cooperate to determine an overall solution. Thus, agents solve the ov... Read More about Multi-Hyb: a hybrid algorithm for solving DisCSPs with complex local problems..

A hybrid approach to distributed constraint satisfaction. (2008)
Conference Proceeding
LEE, D., ARANA, I., AHRIZ, H. and HUI, K.-Y. 2008. A hybrid approach to distributed constraint satisfaction. In Dochev, D., Pistore, M. and Traverso, P. (eds.) Proceedings of the 13th International conference on artificial intelligence: methodology, systems and applications (AIMSA 2008), 4-6 September 2008, Varna, Bulgaria. Lecture notes in computer science, 5253. Berlin: Springer [online], pages 375-379. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-85776-1_33

We present a hybrid approach to Distributed Constraint Satisfaction which combines incomplete, fast, penalty-based local search with complete, slower systematic search. Thus, we propose the hybrid algorithm PenDHyb where the distributed local search... Read More about A hybrid approach to distributed constraint satisfaction..

DynABT: dynamic asynchronous backtracking for dynamic DisCSPs. (2008)
Conference Proceeding
OMOMOWO, B., ARANA, I. and AHRIZ, H. 2008. DynABT: dynamic asynchronous backtracking for dynamic DisCSPs. In Dochev, D., Pistore, M. and Traverso, P. (eds.) Proceedings of the 13th International conference on artificial intelligence: methodology, systems and applications (AIMSA 2008), 4-6 September 2008, Varna, Bulgaria. Lecture notes in computer science, 5253. Berlin: Springer [online], pages 285-296. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-85776-1_24

Constraint Satisfaction has been widely used to model static combinatorial problems. However, many AI problems are dynamic and take place in a distributed environment, i.e. the problems are distributed over a number of agents and change over time. Dy... Read More about DynABT: dynamic asynchronous backtracking for dynamic DisCSPs..

Escaping local optima: constraint weights vs value penalties. (2007)
Conference Proceeding
BASHARU, M., ARANA, I. and AHRIZ, H. 2008. Escaping local optima: constraint weights vs. value penalties. In Bramer, M., Coenen, F. and Petridis, M. (eds.) Research and development in intelligent systems XXIV: technical proceedings of the 27th Annual international conference of the British Computer Society's Specialist Group on Artificial Intelligence (SGAI) (AI-2007): innovative techniques and applications of artificial intelligence, 10-12 December 2007, Cambridge, UK. London: Springer [online], pages 51-64. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84800-094-0_5

Constraint Satisfaction Problems can be solved using either iterative improvement or constructive search approaches. Iterative improvement techniques converge quicker than the constructive search techniques on large problems, but they have a propensi... Read More about Escaping local optima: constraint weights vs value penalties..

DisBO-wd: a distributed constraint satisfaction algorithm for coarse-grained distributed problems. (2007)
Conference Proceeding
BASHARU, M., ARANA, I. and AHRIZ, H. 2008. DisBO-wd: a distributed constraint satisfaction algorithm for coarse-grained distributed problems. In Bramer, M., Coenen, F. and Petridis, M. (eds.) Research and development in intelligent systems XXIV: technical proceedings of the 27th Annual international conference of the British Computer Society's Specialist Group on Artificial Intelligence (SGAI) (AI-2007): innovative techniques and applications of artificial intelligence, 10-12 December 2007, Cambridge, UK. London: Springer [online], pages 23-36. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84800-094-0_3

We present a distributed iterative improvement algorithm for solving coarse-grained distributed constraint satisfaction problems (DisCSPs). Our algorithm is inspired by the Distributed Breakout for coarse-grained DisCSPs where we introduce a constrai... Read More about DisBO-wd: a distributed constraint satisfaction algorithm for coarse-grained distributed problems..

Solving coarse-grained DisCSPs with Multi-DisPeL and DisBO-wd. (2007)
Conference Proceeding
BASHARU, M., ARANA, I. and AHRIZ, A. 2007. Solving coarse-grained DisCSPs with Multi-DisPeL and DisBO-wd. In Lin, T.Y., Bradshaw, J.M., Klusch, M., Zhang, C., Broder, A. and Ho, H. (eds.) Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE/WIC/ACM international conference on intelligent agent technology (IAT 2007), 2-5 November 2007, Silicon Valley, USA. Los Alamitos: IEEE Computer Society [online], article number 4407307, pages 335-341. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1109/IAT.2007.68

We present Multi-DisPel, a penalty-based local search distributed algorithm which is able to solve coarse-grained Distributed Constraint Satisfaction Problems (DisCSPs) efficiently. Multi-DisPeL uses penalties on values in order to escape local optim... Read More about Solving coarse-grained DisCSPs with Multi-DisPeL and DisBO-wd..

An introduction to interval-based constraint processing. (2006)
Journal Article
RENKER, G. and AHRIZ, H. 2006. An introduction to interval-based constraint processing. Archives of control sciences, 16(2), pages 161-190.

Constraint programming is often associated with solving problems over finite domains. Many applications in engineering, CAD and design, however, require solving problems over continuous (real-valued) domains. While simple constraint solvers can solve... Read More about An introduction to interval-based constraint processing..

Stoch-DisPeL: exploiting randomisation in DisPeL. (2006)
Presentation / Conference
BASHARU, M., ARANA, I. and AHRIZ, H. 2006. Stoch-DisPeL: exploiting randomisation in DisPeL. Presented at the 7th International workshop on distributed constraint reasoning (DCR 2006), part of the 5th International joint conference on autonomous agents and multiagent systems (AAMAS 2006), 8-12 May 2006, Hakodate, Japan.

We present Stoch-DisPeL, an extension of the distributed constraint programming algorithm DisPeL which incorporates randomisation into the algorithm. We justify the introduction of stochastic moves and analyse its performance on random DisCSPs and on... Read More about Stoch-DisPeL: exploiting randomisation in DisPeL..

An online collaborative tool for sustainable design. (2005)
Conference Proceeding
BENNADJI, A., AHRIZ, H. and BELAKEHAL, A. 2005. An online collaborative tool for sustainable design. In Imbabi, M.S. and Mitchell, C.P. (eds.) Renewable energy, technology, innovation and the environment: proceedings of the 2005 Regional meeting of the World Renewable Energy Congress (WREC 2005): innovation in Europe, 22-27 May 2005, Aberdeen, UK. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

One of the most important aspects a design team needs to consider fairly early on is that of energy saving, cost, thermal comfort and the effect on the environment in terms of CO2 emissions. This paper presents an online collaborative tool that allow... Read More about An online collaborative tool for sustainable design..

Solving DisCSPs with penalty-driven search. (2005)
Conference Proceeding
BASHARU,M., ARANA, I. and AHRIZ, H. 2005. Solving DisCSPs with penalty-driven search. In Proceedings of the 20th American Association for Artificial Intelligence national conference on artificial intelligence (AAAI-05), co-located with the 17th Annual conference on innovative applications of artificial intelligence (IAAI-05), 9-13 July 2005, Pittsburgh, USA. Palo Alto: AAAI Press, pages 47-52.

We introduce the Distributed, Penalty-driven Local search algorithm (DisPeL) for solving Distributed Constraint Satisfaction Problems. DisPeL is a novel distributed iterative improvement algorithm which escapes local optima by the use of both tempora... Read More about Solving DisCSPs with penalty-driven search..

Distributed guided local search for solving binary DisCSPs. (2005)
Conference Proceeding
BASHARU, M., ARANA, I. and AHRIZ, H. 2005. Distributed guided local search for solving binary DisCSPs. In Russell, I. and Markov, Z. (eds.) Proceedings of the 18th International conference of the Florida Artificial Intelligence Research Society (FLAIRS 2005), 16-18 May 2005, Clearwater, USA. Palo Alto: AAAI Press [online], pages 660-665. Available from: http://www.aaai.org/Papers/FLAIRS/2005/Flairs05-108.pdf

We introduce the Distributed Guided Local Search (Dist- GLS) algorithm for solving Distributed Constraint Satisfaction Problems. Our algorithm is based on the centralised Guided Local Search algorithm, which is extended with additional heuristics in... Read More about Distributed guided local search for solving binary DisCSPs..

Escaping local optima with penalties in distributed iterative improvement search. (2005)
Presentation / Conference
BASHARU, M., ARANA, I. and AHRIZ, H. 2005. Escaping local optima with penalties in distributed iterative improvement search. Presented at the 6th International workshop on distributed constraint reasoning (DCR 2005), part of the 19th International joint conference on artificial intelligence (IJCAI-05), 30 July - 5 August 2005, Edinburgh, UK.

The advantages offered by iterative improvement search make it a popular technique for solving problems in centralised settings. However, the key challenge with this approach is finding effective strategies for dealing with local optima. Such strateg... Read More about Escaping local optima with penalties in distributed iterative improvement search..

Escaping local optima in multi-agent oriented constraint satisfaction. (2004)
Conference Proceeding
BASHARU, M., AHRIZ, H. and ARANA, I. 2004. Escaping local optima in multi-agent oriented constraint satisfaction. In Coenen, F., Preece, A. and Macintosh, A. (eds.) Research and development in intelligent systems XX: technical proceedings of the 23rd Annual international conference of the British Computer Society's Specialist Group on Artificial Intelligence (SGAI) (AI-2003), 15-17 December 2003, Cambridge, UK. London: Springer [online], pages 97-110. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-85729-412-8_8

We present a multi-agent approach to constraint satisfaction where feedback and reinforcement are used in order to avoid local optima and, consequently, to improve the overall solution. Our approach, FeReRA, is based on the fact that an agents local... Read More about Escaping local optima in multi-agent oriented constraint satisfaction..

Building models through formal specification. (2004)
Conference Proceeding
RENKER, G. and AHRIZ, H. 2004. Building models through formal specification. In Régin, J.-C. and Rueher, M. (eds.) Integration of AI and OR techniques in constraint programming for combinatorial optimization problems: proceedings of the 1st International conference on integration of artificial intelligence and operations research techniques in constraint programming (CPAIOR 2004), 20-22 April 2004, Nice, France. Lecture notes in computer science, 3011. Berlin: Springer [online], pages 395-401. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-24664-0_29

Over the past years, a number of increasingly expressive languages for modelling constraint and optimisation problems have evolved. In developing a strategy to ease the complexity of building models for constraint and optimisation problems, we have a... Read More about Building models through formal specification..

Computer aided sustainable design. (2004)
Conference Proceeding
BENNADJI, A., AHRIZ, H. and ALASTAIR, P. 2005. Computer aided sustainable design. In Proceedings of the 1st International Arab Society for Computer Aided Architecrual Design (ASCAAD) conference on computer aided architectural design(ASCAAD 2005); e-design in architecure, 22-24 February 2005, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Dhahran: ASCAAD [online], pages 125-135. Available from: http://www.ascaad.org/conference/2004/proceedings.php

One of the most important aspects architects need to consider fairly early on is that of energy saving, cost, thermal comfort and the effect on the environment in terms of CO2 emissions. At present, during the early design stage of a building, differ... Read More about Computer aided sustainable design..

CSP: there is more than one way to model it. (2003)
Conference Proceeding
RENKER, G., AHRIZ, H. and ARANA, I. 2003. CSP: there is more than one way to model it. In Bramer, M., Preece, A. and Coenen, F. (eds.) Research and development in intelligent systems XIX: proceedings of the 22nd British Computer Society's Specialist Group on Artificial Intelligence (SGAI) international conference on knowledge based systems and applied artificial intelligence (ES2002), 10-12 December 2002, Cambridge, UK. London: Springer [online], pages 395-408. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-0651-7_28

In this paper, we present an approach for conceptual modelling of con- straint satisfaction problems (CSP). The main objective is to achieve a similarly high degree of modelling support for constraint problems as it is already available in other disc... Read More about CSP: there is more than one way to model it..

A methodology for the elicitation of redesign knowledge. (2002)
Conference Proceeding
AHRIZ, H. and ARANA, I. 2002. A methodology for the elicitation of redesign knowledge. In Damiani, E., Howlett, R.J., Jain, L.C. and Ichalkaranje, N. (eds.) Knowledge-based intelligent information engineering systems and allied technologies: proceedings of the 6th International conference on knowledge-based intelligent information and engineering systems (KES 2002), 16-18 September 2002, Crema, Italy. Frontiers in artificial intelligence and applications, 82. Amsterdam: IOS Press.

We present MADAM, a methodology which allows the elicitation, capture, analysis and management of redesign knowledge. This area is characterised by the high reusability of problem solutions and is represented using three views: physical, functional a... Read More about A methodology for the elicitation of redesign knowledge..

A step toward reusable model fragments. (2001)
Conference Proceeding
AHRIZ, H. and TOMASENA, M. 2001. A step toward reusable model fragments. In Proceedings of the 2001 International conference on computational intelligence for modeling control and automation (CIMCA 2001), 9-11 July 2001, Las Vegas, USA. New York: IEEE, pages 559-566.

In this paper we describe a system to elaborate models which are suitable for model based reasoning. A set of model fragments selected from a library will be put together to build a model candidate. The system relies on the bond graph notation, which... Read More about A step toward reusable model fragments..

Verification of redesign models: a CSP approach. (2001)
Conference Proceeding
ARANA, I. and AHRIZ, H. 2001. Verification of redesign models: a CSP approach. In Culley, S. (ed.) Proceedings of the 13th International conference on engineering design (ICED'01), 21-23 August 2001, Glasgow, UK. Zurich: Professional Engineering Publishing, pages 283-290.

One of the initial stages in the manufacturing of an article is the production of a design which satisfies a set of user requirements. Much of the design work carried out in manufacturing companies can be classified as redesign, i.e. producing a new... Read More about Verification of redesign models: a CSP approach..

Modeling as a fragment assembling process. (1999)
Conference Proceeding
AHRIZ, H. and TOMASENA, M. 1999. Modeling as a fragment assembling process. In Price, C. (ed.) Proceedings of the 13th International workshop on qualitative reasoning (QR99), 6-9 June 1999, Loch Awe, UK. Evanston, IL: Qualitative Reasoning Group [online], pages 1-10. Available from: http://www.qrg.northwestern.edu/papers/Files/qr-workshops/QR99/Ahriz_1999_Modeling_Fragment_Assembling_Process.pdf

Model based reasoning about physical systems deals with diagnosis, supervision, interpretation, explanation, etc. Most of the contributions to this domain do not pay much attention to model construction, and it was generally accepted that a model was... Read More about Modeling as a fragment assembling process..

Automatic modelling for diagnosis. (1997)
Conference Proceeding
AHRIZ, A. and XIA, S. 1997. Automatic modelling for diagnosis. In Ironi, L. (ed.) Proceedings of the 11th International workshop on qualitative reasoning (QR97), 3-6 June 1997, Cortona, Italy. Pavia: Istituto di Analisi Numerica [online], pages 3-12. Available from: http://www.qrg.northwestern.edu/papers/Files/qr-workshops/QR97/Ahriz_1997_Automatic_Modelling_Diagnosis.pdf

Much of the past work on fault diagnosis did not pay enough attention to model construction and its important role in aiding problem solving. It was generally accepted that a model was available or was assumed to be present in a certain format before... Read More about Automatic modelling for diagnosis..