From the prefect's desk: Gerard van Swieten's library correspondence.

This article investigates library-related documents written by Gerard van Swieten (1700-1772) during his tenure as Library Prefect (1745-1772) in the Imperial Library of Vienna. Van Swieten's time as Library Prefect is considered through a textual analysis. Handwritten letters were deconstructed in terms of their appearance, layout and tone in order to mine them for meaning. Furthermore, the contents were examined for library matters such as censorship, catalogues and collection development. The Court Library held a prominent role as a repository for rare and valuable works, later becoming the National Library of Austria. Gerard van Swieten’s work as a librarian tends to be overlooked, perhaps because he is better known as the private physician of Maria Theresia, as well as a medical reformer. Nevertheless, he was a hard-working chief librarian deeply involved in all aspects of librarianship. Van Swieten endorsed modern scientific works, which were otherwise banned officially by the censorship commission, for the use of scholars in the library, expanded the collection by acquiring books through his network of scholars and publishers and reissued library catalogues. He also provided for the comfort of users in the library reading room, at a time when such considerations were unusual. In conclusion, a proposal was made that van Swieten viewed his role as librarian with some importance and pride.


Introduction and Background
The Imperial Court Library in Vienna, Austria, originally founded in 1368, provided the nucleus for the contemporary Austrian National Library (ÖNB). 1 One of the most celebrated Prefects of the Library was Gerard van Swieten, who held this position from 1745 until his death in 1772, for a total of about twenty-seven years. 2 Although he is primarily known as a medical reformer, he also instituted a number of sweeping changes in the administration of the library, with the support of his employer, Empress Maria Theresia. 3 He was not only Library Prefect, but also Maria Theresia's personal physician, 4 held in high regard by the Empress and uniquely placed to carry out reforms. 5 Klingenstein refers to van Swieten as a Wissensorganisator, 6 a term that may perhaps be loosely interpreted as also being part of the duties of a librarian. 7 Because of van Swieten's far-ranging interests and skills, and the interdisciplinary nature of his knowledge, comprising medicine, social welfare, botany, chemistry and education, he is a complex personality. 8  An important milestone in the history of the Imperial Library was Karl VI's construction of a grand baroque building in Vienna in 1723 which underlined the library's privileged and representative status. 9 A practical reason for constructing this new building was the need for more space for the collections. However, the library's financial and personnel resources remained limited. 10 Maria Theresia's father, Karl VI, expressly wished the library to be open for public use, although, at that time, this meant only scholars were allowed access to the library's holdings. 11 As the baroque emphasis on glorious presentation gradually eroded, the library as a secular institution supporting learning and the propagation of knowledge became more paramount. There was a desire to ameliorate the neglected state of the library holdings, not only to reflect the glory of its founders but also to consolidate the Imperial Library's reputation as a place of erudition in Europe. When Maria Theresia ascended the throne, she inherited the financial difficulties and stultified and neglected institutions of higher education, which after the years of war and disease had perhaps lost the lustre and reputation they had once had within Europe. One could say that Maria Theresia wished to reinstate this glorious reputation and rebuild not only the financial state but also the intellectual structure to support and repair it. 12 On fine hand-crafted paper, Maria Theresia wrote to Gerard van Swieten when he was still in the Netherlands. With refined eloquence, as well as the pragmatic offering of economic stability, she was eventually able to convince the Dutchman to move with his family across Europe and settle in her city. In late June 1745, three weeks after their arrival in Vienna, he was officially appointed Protomedicus et Bibliothecarius. 13 He was an outsider in the rarefied world of the Viennese court, in manner and dress. Van Swieten referred to himself as the 'little Republican' in a letter to his friend António Ribeiro Sanches (1699-1783). 14 He chose to wear his simpler traditional Dutch clothing, which Maria Theresia generously allowed. 15 Lesky notes that it was a sign of his sovereignty and his non-conformist approach that he was able to attend the baroque, aristocratic Viennese court without wig and lace frills on his cuffs, forty-four years before the French Revolution. Only when Maria Theresia herself crocheted lace frill cuffs for him, did he acquiesce to her sartorial wishes. 16  Few detailed accounts exist for van Swieten's life. 18 His life in more austere Holland, where he lived for nearly forty-five years, moulded his character and values. He became an orphan at the age of twelve and so was aware of how precarious life could be from an early age. This personal tragedy perhaps instilled in him a specific sensitivity to the plight of vulnerable children and young people.
As his father, a notary, had provided for him in his will, he was able to live with his guardian and continue his studies, going on to manage a pharmacy and receive his doctorate on the structure of arteries in 1725. Van Swieten was a devout Roman Catholic, yet he grew up in the relatively free-thinking and modern atmosphere of eighteenth-century Holland, with its thriving economy and solid middle class.
Dr. Boerhaave's work ethic, which highlighted the importance of scholarly pursuits and the common good, was to him worthy of emulation. One unsubstantiated anecdote, which discloses a firm integrity, explains how he refused a well-paid position in England, because he would not be allowed to practice his religion freely. Van Swieten was initially reluctant to accept Maria Theresia's offer of employment and leave the peaceful city of Leiden. However, when it became apparent that he would not be able to teach at the University of Leiden because he was Catholic, and that the Empress offered generous conditions in which he could continue his work as a physician, librarian and educator, he accepted. A key motivating factor in his work was his desire to reawaken 'le gout pour les sciences (sic)' in the Habsburg territories, as mentioned in a letter to Sanches dated 16 November 1746. 19 In Vienna, he kept a disciplined daily schedule in order to be able to fulfil the duties of his positions, as well as seeing patients on a charitable basis as a medical doctor. 20 Therefore, learning, education and social welfare were important values to him. The value of education was so deeply ingrained in him, that in his fifties, he began learning Hungarian and Arabic. For thirty years, he compiled the many volumes of his Commentaries, 21 partly driven by a sense of wanting to help others with what he had learned under Dr. Boerhaave. In Vienna, he established a home for orphans, and for the elderly and infirm.
Donating his own money for poor students' scholarships, he also gave funds towards the acquisition of new collections for the Imperial Library. Gerard van Swieten was recognized for his determination in standardizing medical texts 22 and in scientifically disproving the existence of vampires with the full support of his Empress. 23 Overall, one has the impression of a man with a high degree of integrity and intelligence, who was motivated by compassion and the unwavering desire to improve the quality of life for others.

Methodology
Nine Models of library history 24 and Bloch's The Historian's Craft 25 provided methodological and theoretical frameworks for this investigation. Therefore, within the Nine Models framework, this article focuses on the biography of Gerard van Swieten as a librarian. In addition, a further model considers library history as focused on a particular library, the Imperial Court Library, within a set time, 1745-1772, embedded within pre-Enlightenment Austria. 26 Methods of text analysis as proposed by O'Leary were applied to provide the chain of evidence on data collection and analysis 27 and enabled a more exhaustive study of these historical texts on linguistic, thematic and hermeneutical levels. The individual items of written evidence may be regarded as the 'tracks' of history, 28 32 and library history 33 to construct a broad historical and social context for the developments in the library. Once analysis of the primary sources began, another field of research was also required, namely, the history of letters and writing, 34 which seemed a logical extension from the library and literacy aspects of this investigation in the spirit of Chartier's The Order of Books. 35 Extensive historical research was conducted on site in Vienna at various institutions such as the Austrian National Library, as well as online in digital archives, with a biographical focus on correspondence and reference to library activities. An emphasis was made not only to incorporate the multilingual richness of the data but also to disengage van Swieten from his role as physician in order to focus on his role as librarian. This task was accomplished in part by the close inspection of indexes and footnotes for references including both van Swieten and the library. A fine index was found in Maria Theresia's biography by 6 Stollberg-Rilinger, 36 while a poignant analysis of contemporary letters by Czernin and Lavandier influenced the direction of the research. 37

Analysis of the correspondence: parameters of surviving documents
Correspondence attributed to Gerard van Swieten has a scattered nature, as he had a wide acquaintance mainly in scholarly and medical circles. At the Austrian National Library, 38 results appear using van Swieten's name and correspondence as the search criteria, of which 4 are digitized. Some digitized elements appear to contain more than one letter, thematically related (e.g., censorship). After Maria Theresia's death in 1780, Joseph II ordered letters his mother had received during her reign destroyed for reasons of state 38 , and these likely included many from van Swieten and so would partly explain the scarcity. 39 Online research 40 indicated the existence of letters to contacts in Sweden, France and Germany; only a limited number have been so far digitized, although in many cases notes on the contents were made. These notes aided in eliminating which letters dealt with purely medical matters, such as prescriptions. Letters written by van Swieten to his scholarly colleagues (which were found to contain library references) were also included as documentation. Müller 41 ,Stummvoll 42 and Lesky in her chapter on Gerard van Swieten 43 provided additional source material, albeit disengaged from the original format. All formats and variations discovered were then implemented for purposes of comparison and analysis.

Physical attributes of the correspondence
The Dutchman's correspondence, including letters to his colleagues, was written on high quality paper, thick and robust. The dimensions of the letter paper were approximately 23 x 18 cm or 23 x 36 cm, and typically folded to create an easily transportable document, which could be held in a hand and at the same time conceal the contents from view. These could be then sealed with wax and embossed with a heraldic stamp. It was quite likely that others were also privy to their contents, such as van Swieten's family or staff. The wax seal would have not hindered others in opening the letters. These documents might be categorised as business letters, and so to a degree, public. They also vary in length, some being messages rather than letters per se. Envelopes as commonly defined were not used at the time for court correspondence, but rather another piece of paper with the address might be used to cover the letter in the case of international missives. 44 The quality and durability of the writing paper is evident, as it retains its substance and texture even after having been handled by many in the intervening centuries. Holding the paper up to the light, one can observe the regular lines of the cellulose structure and form, which are smooth and even.
Some of the sheets have the watermark C & I Honig, 45 which seems to refer to the name of paper manufacturers who supplied paper for contemporary illustrators and printers in Vienna. 46 There was a certain emotional immediacy in handling the actual pieces of paper on which the librarian wrote, which was completely lacking in edited compilations of contemporary letters, such as Arneth. 47 Other aspects of layout such as greeting, forms of address, formalities of expression and closing were considered. Van Swieten typically wrote with the honorific vous-form, customary at the time. Sometimes, Van Swieten's formal opening was, for example, 'Sacred Majesty', 48 concisely respectful. However, greetings and formal address were often dispensed with. Many documents are entitled impersonally 'Note'. In these cases, only a perusal of the contents revealed the potential addressee. His European contacts might be addressed as 'Monseigneur' or 'Mon Excellence', 49 according to the status of whom he was writing to. For scholars he showed a more open appreciation: in letters to von Linné in Sweden, van Swieten was effusive, beginning, 'most honourable and celebrated'. 50 Van Swieten typically dated his letters at the closing, adding his location. His signature appeared laconically and frequently as 'Van Swieten', even after he had been created a Baron. When writing to his esteemed peers or nobility, he used the standard closure, 'very humble and obedient servant'. 51 Even with all his 'republican' tendencies, it is somehow touching to observe that he was not averse to deference.

Language and handwriting
The majority of the primary sources was handwritten in French or Latin, French being the language of the court in Vienna during the reign of Maria Theresia. 52 In contrast to the use of German cursive (Kurrentschrift) which was used for 8 administration in the German-speaking parts of Europe at that time, 53 the correspondence studied was chiefly in Latin cursive, which is likely more recognizable to modern readers. However, orthography was not standardised at the time, so that fluctuations in terms of spelling and the placing of accents were noted. Though for the most part, van Swieten maintained a consistent and cohesive style in his handwriting. Van Swieten was known to be a prolific note-taker, 54 as evidenced by his enormous output in the many volumes of his Commentaries in which he compiled many years of medical notes taken during Boerhaave's lectures 55 He appeared to believe in the importance of writing his correspondence himself, in a welldefined, highly legible Latin cursive. His originality is evidenced in his employment of a cryptographic shorthand code for assigning his judgement to works in the list of censored books. His cryptic stenography was not deciphered until the early twentieth century by van Leersum. 56 The reason for the secrecy was perhaps his wish to conceal his comments from others, especially the religious members of the censor commission. 57 Van Swieten's handwriting in French tended to be upright and rounded, with few ligatures between the letters. The elegantly curved trajectory of the letter D is a distinctive characteristic of his handwriting. Frequently he wrote in Latin, whether recording his Commentaries or corresponding with scholars, with great facility. 58 His Latin script reveals fewer spaces between the letters and a certain compactness of form. However, both scripts show striking similarities, suggesting a mastery of both. 59 There is a confident deliberation in the pressure as he applied his quill to the paper. The regularity, evenness and clear definition of the words belie his steadfastness of belief and strength of character. In his initial acceptance letter to the Empress, he crossed out many words and replaced them with less superlative language ( Figure 2). Later, he did not cross many words out, at least in the documents that have survived. Possibly he became surer of his position, and therefore did not question himself in his choice of words to the same extent. He determined how to phrase what he wanted to say in a way that was appropriate for him to address others, without any loss to his personal integrity.  60 Reproduced by permission of the Manuscript Collection of the Austrian National Library.

Tone and register
In October 1744, when Gerard van Swieten had ultimately accepted Maria Theresia's offer to relocate to Vienna, he wrote to his friend Sanches that he had received several hand-written letters from her and that these letters were decisive in convincing him and his wife to leave their home country. 61 In particular, he refers to her very cordial tone and to the assurances she warmly repeated for the care that would be taken with him and his family. He also was quite moved that she had taken the time to write the letters herself. 62 Although the financial arrangements were handled by Maria Theresia's representatives in the Netherlands, it appears that even before he met her he had formed a positive impression of her, simply through her letters (and the actions carried out on her behalf as a fulfilment of her promises 63 ), that he and his family were willing to quit their peaceful existence in Leiden, sell their family home at a loss, and move across Europe to a country where they were unfamiliar with the language and customs. Van Swieten's correspondence with the Empress formally imparts the intellectual methods and reasons behind his decision-making, with a logical structure. 64 In his letters to Maria Theresia, the altruistic sense of working towards the common good overrode his desire to express his personal opinions on matters. The contained, strong emotions connected to his work seem to hover below the surface of his words. On the other hand, Van Swieten's fastidious professionalism and candour are revealed through his correspondence with fellow scholars and contacts. These letters request specific editions for the Imperial library, confirm receipt of book deliveries, and relay a forthright gratitude and willingness to send books in return. 65 His pride and commitment to his duties as chief librarian and the library itself imbue the letters. Using the medium of the letter, he implemented what might be termed public relations and outreach services, promoting the reputation, collections and goals of the Imperial library throughout Europe.

Library Aspects: censorship
Van Swieten's role as censor falls into the category of library aspects since he dealt with the review and selection of many books, the reading of which was partly accomplished by library staff. 66 His appointment as censor seemed a natural extension of his position as Imperial Library Prefect, and aligned with his intellectual skills. 67 The workings of the censorship committee evolved over time.
The Jesuit Order's prominence in this area diminished as van Swieten exerted more influence over what was considered acceptable, and to what degree. 68 The general effect van Swieten had on censorship was a loosening of the regulations which had been very restrictive under the influence of the Jesuit Order. 69 He was actively engaged in this sector, putting his arguments persuasively before the Empress, who made the final decision.
In his determination to restructure how knowledge was used and studied, Gerard The theme of censorship is present in a number of the surviving letters from van Swieten to Maria Theresia. In a letter dated 26 October 1762, he was at pains to fulfil the Empress' commands in terms of censorship and dutifully elaborates reasons for his decision-making. 74 The implications of this letter are that requests are ultimately to be made of her rather than her husband in the case of condemned books, and these books, although officially condemned on the list of prohibited books, yet still might be retained for the Imperial library for the use of scholars. This seemingly contradictory approach nevertheless represented a dismantling of baroque cultural structures and a receptivity to certain kinds of innovation. 75 The Dutch Prefect also argued delicately on this theme of allowing a certain access to condemned books by referring to the Bible and the necessity of protecting young people from inappropriate materials on 14 March 1760. 76 Further evidence of Maria Theresia's close involvement in censorship on a case by case basis, is found in two of van Swieten's letters dating from 1764. 77 Taken on voluntarily as part of his duties, van Swieten applied himself with great conviction to his position on the censorship board. Challenges included permeable territory borders, the expansion of print culture 78 as well as conflicting religious and intellectual issues. 79 Censoring the increasing number of publications while attempting to maintain a level of intellectual freedom in the library in an environment of political intrigue was laborious and mentally draining. Eventually, this activity took a mental toll on his health. In a letter to his Empress on 18 December 1764, van Swieten wrote 'je traine le penible fardeau de la censure pendant treize ans (sic)', adding he no longer wished to continue under the circumstances. 80 Maria Theresia responded directly on the same piece of paper, writing that she would like the others to possess his upright and moral character which was not commonly found in people of that place and time. In essence, this was an indirect order and laudatory encouragement for van Swieten to remain in his position. She needed him as a censor because of his unique qualifications and strong character. This desire to retire from his censorship duties was echoed several years later with more insistence on his advanced age, when he was 67 years old. 81 However, he would continue working on the censorship committee for several more years, until his last illness prevented him from fulfilling his duties.
Furthermore, the composition of lists of prohibited books and their distribution was relegated to him. 82 With his customary dedication and thoroughness, he applied himself to the task. The publication of prohibited books in the Realzeitung newspaper in Vienna however aroused more curiosity about the prohibited books themselves so much that in 1777, the index of prohibited books had itself to be prohibited. 83

Collection development and maintenance
As Stummvoll notes, in the first few years of inhabiting the role of Library Prefect, van Swieten became acquainted with the state of the library and gained a deeper understanding of its operation. He needed some time to adapt to his new surroundings, where also envy of his appointment emerged. 84 Throughout his tenure as Library Prefect, especially once he had become familiar with the library, he was constantly engaged in expanding the collections and bringing order to them. An acquisition method, which often evolved through his network of scholarly contacts in Europe, was the purchase of books and precious documents to fill gaps in the literature and magnify the assets, on imperial orders. In a letter dated 13 September 1755, he exhorts his contact in Paris to choose the copy of the book 'qui est le plus beau', adding that her Majesty wishes the delivery to ensue quickly. 85 By 17 December 1755, he had received the books in good order, commenting that her Majesty was satisfied by the delivery 86 (Figures 3 and 4).  During his tenure, he appears to have kept a strict control on the spending, even though sometimes problems were experienced in balancing the books. In a letter dated 23 January 1754, he explains that there were difficulties in the library account due to a payment for a valuable set of Latin poetry books, and the order of new books from Venice. 89 Occasionally, in the acquisition of precious library materials, the Dutch librarian amplified the budget with his own personal funds. Other forms of collection development were through more unusual channels.

Bachleitner showed that part of the increase in the number of books in the
Hofbibliothek was, from the 1760s, due to the confiscation of theological and political books forbidden by the censors. 91 The presence of these books is confirmed by Gottfried van Swieten, who wrote that his father's intention was to complete and expand the library's collection in all subjects of knowledge, notwithstanding those books that presented solecisms. 92

Reading room
With the dissolution of the University of Vienna Library in 1756 96 over 3 000 of the most precious manuscripts and incunabula were absorbed into the holdings of the Hofbibliothek, many of which then permanently remained there. Part of the reason given for this decision, apart from the lack of space and poor conditions in the University Library, was to ensure that these items remained accessible to the public. 97 This curious detail implies that it was the policy of the Imperial Library to maintain public access to its holdings. At the time however, public was rather narrowly defined in terms of scholars and elite members of society.
Gerard van Swieten made efforts to revitalise the reading room, so that it would be comfortable for readers. Referred to as the old reading room (Alte Lesezimmer), it was located on the upper floor of an adjoining wing of the State Hall, near the offices of the Prefect. His additions included installing heating for the cold winters, as well as proper seating and tables, which was appreciated so much that it was even mentioned in van Swieten's eulogy. 98

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The reading room was open the whole year from 8 a.m. until noon for the use of scholars (from 9 a.m. in the winter), with one or two library assistants in attendance. 99 This was however only an interim solution. Fingernagel indicates that the dimensions of the room were small, and that it was poorly lit. With space for only about forty people, the demand soon outstripped the available resources. Reports state that in the decades following there were between eighty to one hundred readers in the room at the same time, which also was intended as an office for library staff. 100

Catalogues
The updating and revision of the library catalogues became a priority for van Swieten, since the century-old catalogues were in a lamentable state and no longer aided in finding books as they once had, due to alterations and additions to the holdings. Thus, Custos Adam Kollár (1718-1783) was given the project to revise the catalogues, and one hundred copies were then printed by Trattner, the official court publisher. The contract and the invoice may be found in the Archive of the Austrian National Library. 101 It states in the contract, dated 02 September 1760, that Kollár was to improve and expand upon Peter Lambeck's 102 original work, and give the publisher each catalogue as it was completed to be published, until all twelve volumes had been published. 103 Final corrections to the proofs would be carried out by Kollár. Two qualities of paper were to be used, the more expensive Franzpapier was used for twenty-four copies. These luxurious copies may have been destined for the perusal of the aristocratic library clientele. The publisher committed himself to printing three pages each week, notwithstanding holidays and other circumstances. Mention was also made of the additional complication of printing ancient Greek and Latin letters, the regulation of costs incurred through errors.
This administrative project was one of Kollár and van Swieten's long-term library objectives to facilitate access and to inventorize the treasures within the Hofbibliothek.  105 Lectures were also given in mathematics, philosophy and the natural sciences over a period of about six years. 106 Implicitly, van Swieten redefined his library as a multi-functional space rather than simply an outward indication of prestige. The implementation of library space as a lecture hall brought vitality and signalled a shift in priorities. It is possible that he allowed university classes to be held in the library since he himself was not officially designated to teach students on the University grounds. Yet, he wished to be an active participant in higher education and exercise his devotion to teaching, which he had developed in Holland. By using the library's premises for attending lectures, more students and scholars were encouraged to visit the library. In this way, the Hofbibliothek promoted higher education in an unofficial capacity, effectively extending the scope of the Imperial Library outside its traditional boundaries.

Van Swieten's role as librarian
The nature of van Swieten's role as librarian may be defined as integrative (interwoven with his other significant duties) and steadfastly idealistic. He singled out his work as a librarian in his letter to fellow scholar François de Boissier, dated 08 May 1751 in Pressburg (Bratislava) where he was staying with the court. 107 He acknowledged receiving works from him, apologizing that has not been able to read them because he has 'mille occupations sur les bras'. Van Swieten stated that his functions include those of professor, librarian and president of the faculty of medicine and first doctor in the land. Striking is how the duty as librarian appears before his medical roles. It appears that van Swieten perceived his work as librarian perhaps with pride and a certain importance. His activities as librarian underscored and united his great intellectual, linguistic and organisational skills.
Not one prone to exaggeration, the Dutchman was genuinely very occupied with a variety of intellectual pursuits. This sentiment is echoed in a note to a French editor of Tacitus  Gebrauchsbibliothek 110 where the innate usefulness of a library was gaining prominence over outward display. A reference is also made to the intended library user group. Essentially, this short statement encapsulates van Swieten's approach to librarianship. In addition, van Swieten's response implies that those intellectual activities he participated in voluntarily, for example, as censor, he perceived as being conceptually related to his occupation as librarian. Where his Empress regarded him as increasing the public good and advancing the sciences in her name, it was more or less at his discretion to act as librarian and initiate the projects relevant within this sphere of influence.

Conclusion
The examination of handwritten materials revealed Gerard van Swieten to be a librarian, through and through -even though he is primarily associated with his extensive work as a medical reformer. Van

Notes on contributors
Clara Chlebak works at the C3-Library for International Development in Vienna.
Professor Peter Reid is professor of librarianship at Robert Gordon University in Aberdeen.